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The preservation of our natural environment plays a crucial role in sustaining humanity and fostering our connection with nature. These intricate connections are of utmost importance to our survival, so much so that a vote in late July 2022 saw the United Nations General Assembly agree to declare the ability to live in "a clean, healthy and sustainable environment" a human right for all. (The UN)

Environmentalism with roots in the industrial revolution has evolved through post-war cooperation, scientific advancements, and the collaboration of various stakeholders. Environmentalists, conservationists, preservationists, scientists, industry representatives, non-governmental organisations, and governmental bodies have tirelessly advocated for the preservation, restoration, and enhancement of the natural environment. Their efforts have spanned the corridors of power, bilateral, unilateral, and multilateral agreements, as well as frontline activism, throughout many decades.

Through collective endeavours, we now unequivocally understand that our actions have contributed to adverse climate change. It is imperative that we urgently amplify and accelerate global climate action.

environmentalism, an origin story

Concerns regarding the effects of air and water pollution on human life have been present since ancient times, including instances of epidemic diseases associated with pollution in Europe during the late 14th and mid-16th centuries. Soil conservation practices were implemented in China, India, and Peru as early as 2,000 years ago. However, public activism on these issues did not emerge until the late 19th century.

During the late 18th to the mid-19th century, the modern environmental movement emerged, driven by concerns about protecting the countryside in Europe, preserving wilderness in the United States, and addressing the health consequences of pollution during the Industrial Revolution. This period marked a significant transformation (1760-1840) in Great Britain, Continental Europe, and the United States, characterised by the shift from manual production methods to large-scale industrialisation. Mechanised machines, chemical manufacturing, iron production processes, and the introduction of the factory system brought about profound changes.

New power sources, advancements in machine tools, and the establishment of mechanised factory systems, along with improved working methods, increased productivity and efficiency in existing industries, leading to a significant rise in output. However, this rapid industrialisation also resulted in a surge in population and living standards, causing detrimental impacts on the environment and depletion of natural resources.

Factories heavily relied on chemicals and fuel, resulting in air pollution from towering smokestacks and water pollution as waste poured into streams and lakes, leading to the death of aquatic life. The emissions escalated rapidly without adequate regulations to control or mitigate them. An early awareness of the potential climate impact of these emissions can be observed in an article published in the 1912 Rodney & Otamatea Times, over a century ago.

“The furnaces of the world are now burning about 2,000,000,000 tons of coal a year. When this is burned, uniting with oxygen, it adds about 7,000,000,000 tons of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere yearly. This tends to make the air a more effective blanket for the earth and to raise its temperature. The effect may be considerable in a few centuries.”

The prevailing political philosophy of this time, liberalism, advocated that all social issues, including environmental concerns, could and should be resolved through the free market. However, early environmentalists held the belief that government, rather than the market, should be responsible for safeguarding the environment and ensuring the conservation of resources.

In the United States, conservation efforts were spearheaded by Gifford Pinchot (1865-1946), the first chief of the U.S. Forest Service. Pinchot developed a resource conservation philosophy focused on the wise and efficient utilisation of resources. Additionally, figures such as John Muir (1839-1914), the founder of the Sierra Club, and Aldo Leopold (1887-1948), a professor of wildlife management, advocated for a more biocentric approach, emphasising equal moral consideration for all life. Leopold played a crucial role in the designation of Gila National Forest in New Mexico as America's first national wilderness area in 1924.

During the late 19th to mid-20th century, numerous environmental organisations emerged, primarily as middle-class lobbying groups. These organisations were concerned with nature conservation, wildlife protection, and the impact of industrial development and urbanisation. Scientific organisations also formed around the study of natural history and biological aspects of conservation efforts.

While the United States led in conservation efforts during this time, other examples of conservation arose in Europe and Oceania. For instance, Sweden established nine national parks in 1909, making it the first such initiative in Europe. Switzerland created a 14,000-hectare national park in 1914, and in New Zealand, the Native Bird Protection Society (later known as the Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society or Forest and Bird) was formed in 1923 in response to the destruction of Kapiti Island by livestock.

Starting in the 1960s, various philosophical perspectives within environmentalism gained political expression through the formation of "green" political movements, environmentalist political parties, and activist non-governmental organisations. Despite the diversity of the time, four pillars emerged that united the broad goals of political ecology: production of the environment, grassroots democracy, social justice, and nonviolence.

While a small number of environmental groups and activists resorted to ecoterrorism as a response to perceived violence against nature, other strategies included public education, media campaigns, community-directed activities, and conventional lobbying of policymakers and politicians. Initiatives such as recycling, green consumerism, and the establishment of alternative communities, including self-sufficient farms, worker cooperatives, and cooperative housing projects, also gained traction.

Public awareness regarding environmental issues increased, aided by influential books like Rachel Carson's "Silent Spring," published in 1962. Carson's work shed light on the environmental impact of chemical pesticides and became a bestseller, significantly impacting the modern environmental movement.

Electoral strategies began incorporating the nomination of candidates focused on environmental issues and the formation of green political parties. The 1970s marked the emergence of the first green parties, such as the Values Party in New Zealand and the United Tasmania Group in Tasmania, Australia. Throughout the final two decades of the 20th century, green parties experienced notable progress in gaining national representation across various countries. Notably, the German Green Party, founded in 1980, successfully obtained seats in the Bundestag during both the 1983 and 1987 elections. Similarly, the New Zealand Green Party, restructured from the former Values Party, secured parliamentary seats in the 1990 general election and expanded its representation in subsequent electoral cycles.

During the late 1980s, non-governmental organisations such as the World Wildlife Fund (established in 1961), Friends of the Earth (established in 1969), and Greenpeace (established in 1971) gained a significant international presence, with offices worldwide. This period also witnessed the inclusion of environmental issues in global political agendas, leading to the implementation of a limited number of bilateral and multilateral international environmental agreements.

However, it was not until the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm that the scope of multilateral environmental agreements expanded to encompass a wide range of environmental concerns. These agreements began to address various practices and issues with environmental consequences, including the burning of fossil fuels, the trade of endangered species, the management of hazardous waste (particularly nuclear waste), and the impact of armed conflicts.

In contemporary times, the environmental movement has expanded its scope beyond conventional areas of interest such as conservation, preservation, and pollution. Present-day environmentalists are now taking into account the environmental impacts arising from economic activities like diverse forms of tourism, trade, financial investments, and even the conduct of warfare.

The United Nations consolidates and unifies

At the end of the Second World War in 1945, the United Nations (UN) was founded with the aim of "saving succeeding generations from the scourge of war." The UN is an international organisation currently composed of 193 member states. Its work and operations are guided by the purposes and principles outlined in its founding Charter. The Charter is regarded as an international treaty, making it an instrument of international law to which UN Member States are obligated.

Throughout the years, the UN has adapted to a rapidly changing world. However, one constant remains: it is the one place on Earth where all the world’s nations can gather together, discuss common problems, and find shared solutions that benefit all of humanity.” (UN)

The UN Charter delineates the fundamental principles of international relations, encompassing concepts like the sovereign equality of states and the prohibition of the use of force in international affairs. Due to its distinctive international nature and vested powers, the UN possesses the capability to address a wide array of global issues.

The General Assembly lies at the core of the United Nations, functioning as a central forum that includes member states. It plays a pivotal role as the primary body for deliberation, policy-making, and representation within the organisation. This forum serves as a platform for multilateral discussions covering a broad spectrum of international issues defined in the Charter. It is within the General Assembly that standards are established and international law is formulated and advanced.

The UN is composed of six principal organs, referred to as bodies. These include the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat, which comprises the staff of the United Nations. With the exception of the International Court of Justice, which is located in The Hague, Netherlands, all the other organs are based at the UN Headquarters in New York.

In accordance with Article 97 of the founding Charter, the appointment of Secretary-General of the United Nations is made by the General Assembly, on the recommendation of the Security Council. The current term of the Secretary-General is five years, with a possibility to be re-appointed for a second five year term. The Secretary-General of the United Nations, is equal parts diplomat and advocate, international civil servant and “chief administration officer” of the organisation.

The UN system also includes affiliated programs, funds, and specialised agencies that collaborate to enhance international peace and security, promote sustainable and inclusive development, and protect human rights. The current UN work plan encompasses five key areas:

1. Maintain international peace and security

2. Protect human rights

3. Deliver humanitarian aid

4. Support sustainable development and climate action

5. Uphold international law

The first-ever UN Environment Summit was held in Stockholm in 1972 to support (area 4) sustainable development and climate action. This summit brought global awareness to the increasing problems of pollution, pesticides, and other environmental challenges. It served as a catalyst for collaborative endeavors to protect the planet, leading to the creation of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the annual celebration of World Environment Day.

The UNEP was established with the purpose of monitoring the state of the environment, providing scientific input for policymaking, and coordinating responses to global environmental challenges. Its mission is "to inspire, inform, and enable nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations" (UNEP).

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and its collaboration with member states have facilitated coordinated action and a global commitment to address the most critical environmental challenges. Some notable landmark agreements are:

• Montreal Protocol (1987): This multilateral environmental agreement regulates the production and consumption of nearly 100 man-made chemicals known as ozone-depleting substances. It has been amended to include the phase-down of potent greenhouse gases and holds the distinction of being the only UN treaty to achieve universal ratification..

• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 1988), established by the World Metrological Organisation (WMO) and UN Environment Programme to provide governments with scientific information to develop climate policies.

• The ‘United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change’ (UNFCCC, 1992): This international environmental treaty aims to address "dangerous human interference with the climate system." The framework aims to curb greenhouse gas emissions and was extended with the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol.

• Conference of the Parties (COP, 1995): As the supreme decision-making body of the UNFCCC, COP holds annual meetings, typically in the home country of the secretariat unless another Party volunteers to host. All states that are Parties to the Convention are represented at COP, where they assess the implementation of the Convention and make decisions necessary for its effective execution. COP reviews national communications and emission inventories submitted by Parties to evaluate the impact of measures taken and progress toward achieving the Convention's objectives.

• Kyoto Protocol (1997): Adopted to operationalise the UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol commits industrialised countries and economies to limit and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions according to agreed targets.

• The Paris Agreement (2015): This groundbreaking universal and legally binding global climate accord aims to limit global warming to well below 2°C, preferably to 1.5°C compared to pre-industrial levels. The agreement was signed at the annual United Nations Climate Change Conference, known as COP21.

Implementing the Paris Agreement requires countries to economically and socially transform, based on the best science. The agreement works on a 5-year cycle, of increasingly ambitious climate action carried out to reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions. Countries submit (to the UNFCCC Secretariat) their plans for action, known as nationally determined contributions (NDCs) to reach the Paris Agreement goals. Countries also communicate in their NDCs the actions they will undertake to build resiliency in adapting to the impact of rising temperatures.

In conjunction with the signing of the Paris Agreement, the UN Sustainable Development Summit in New York also saw the adoption of the UN 2030 Agenda. This agenda is dedicated to eradicating poverty in all its manifestations and consists of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The 2030 Agenda envisions a world characterised by universal respect for human rights, human dignity, the rule of law, justice, equality, and non-discrimination. It builds upon the accomplishments of the Millennium Development Goals while addressing areas that were not sufficiently targeted by the earlier goals.

The new set of Goals is notable for its inclusiveness, calling for action from all countries regardless of their economic status, be it poor, rich, or middle-income. These 17 Goals encompass key areas crucial for humanity and the planet: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace, and Partnership. They are universally applicable to all nations until 2030, requiring collective efforts to eradicate poverty in all forms, address inequalities, combat climate change, and ensure that no one is left behind. Although the SDGs are not legally binding, governments are expected to take responsibility and establish national frameworks to achieve them.

In a 2020 briefing note to the General Assembly, the UNEP emphasised the essential role of the environment in each of the SDGs, from eradicating hunger and reducing inequalities to fostering sustainable communities worldwide. The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) is dedicated to collaborating with all stakeholders to meet these ambitious targets by promoting environmental sustainability and preserving the health of our planet.

Within the framework of the 17 Goals, there are 169 specific targets and 244 indicators used to monitor overall progress, identify gaps, and provide evidence for policymaking and actions. Each indicator has been assigned to a "custodian agency" within the United Nations, with the UNEP serving as a custodian for 26 indicators across 6 goals:

• SDG 6: Clean water and sanitation

• SDG 8: Decent work and economic growth

• SDG 12: Responsible consumption and production

• SDG 14: life below water

• SDG 15: Life on land

• SDG 17: Partnership for the goals

The comprehensive nature of these agreements and goals highlights the importance of global collaboration and concerted efforts from all nations to achieve a sustainable future. With specific targets and indicators in place, the United Nations, including the UNEP, is committed to monitoring progress, identifying areas for improvement, and working towards a better world for present and future generations.

The World Economic Forum and Davos

The Forum', renowned for its Annual World Economic Forum Meeting in Davos-Klosters, Switzerland, was established in 1971 by Professor Klaus Schwab, an economist and engineer. Prior to founding the Forum, Professor Schwab authored a book on modern management, introducing the concept of stakeholders, recognising that businesses should serve the interests of not just shareholders, but also employees, customers, and society as a whole.

Inspired by this book, the first meeting in Davos in 1971 created a platform for businesses to engage with their stakeholders, leading to the establishment of the non-profit foundation initially known as the European Management Forum, now recognised as the World Economic Forum. Today, Davos serves as a platform where diverse voices and perspectives converge to address global issues such as wealth management, climate change, gender equality, mental health, venture capital, and many more.

With a mission to "improve the state of the world," the Forum operates as an independent and impartial organisation, committed to the global public interest. It brings together political, business, cultural, and other leaders to shape agendas at the global, regional, and industry levels.

Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, the Forum's status as a trusted global platform for stakeholder engagement was acknowledged in 2015 through a host state agreement with Switzerland, designating it as the "international organisation for Public-Private Cooperation." In 2019, the Forum further strengthened its impact through a strategic partnership framework agreement (UN-Forum Partnership) with the United Nations, focusing on areas such as financing the 2030 Agenda, climate change, health, digital cooperation, gender equality and women's empowerment, and education and skills.

While the Annual Meeting in Davos is its most prominent event, the Forum encourages ongoing engagement through four major annual meetings and various regional gatherings, workshops, seminars, and national strategy days. These major meetings include:

1. The World Economic Forum Annual Meeting, held in Davos-Klosters, Switzerland, shapes global, regional and industry agendas at the beginning of the calendar year.

2. The Annual Meeting of the New Champions, the Forum’s annual meeting on innovation, science and technology, is held in the People’s Republic of China

3. The Annual Meeting of the Global Future Councils, held in the United Arab Emirates, brings together the world’s leading knowledge community to share insights on the major challenges facing the world today.

4. The Industry Strategy Meeting, brings together Industry Strategy Officers to shape industry agendas and explore how industries can shift from managing change to pioneering change.

In addition to these meetings, the Forum organises the Sustainable Development Impact Summit in New York annually, alongside the United Nations General Assembly.

Funded by approximately 1,000 member companies, the Forum convenes invitation-only meetings in Davos, where CEOs, political figures, civil society representatives, world leaders, academics, journalists, investors, and celebrities gather. Although exclusive, the Annual Meeting is transparent, with extensive media coverage, live streaming of sessions, and a parallel public conference called the Open Forum.

Beyond its events and communities, the Forum conducts research and projects, leveraging its expertise to provide cutting-edge data on global issues. Referred to as "strategic intelligence," this research helps make sense of transformative forces impacting economies, industries, and global challenges. The Forum's transformation maps, interactive data visualizations, showcase the interdependencies between economies, industries, and global issues, facilitating informed decision-making and fostering discussions among experts and decision-makers.

Overall, the Forum plays a vital role in shaping global agendas, fostering collaboration, and providing insights and solutions to address complex global challenges.

Hope on the horizon

Climate action has become more important than ever, and retaining hope while we work to cool our warming planet will be a key factor in our success.

We witness hope in action through foundations such as the Earthshot Council, which incentivises entrepreneurs to develop innovative climate solutions for some of the most challenging climate issues of our time. The Earthshot Council was created after Prince William felt that excessive pessimism in the climate debate was causing people to disengage.

Founded by Prince William and David Attenborough in 2020, with the belief that we have a decade to repair the planet, the Earth Council awards five annual £1m Earthshot prizes. These prizes are part of a global challenge based on five Earthshots, which represent ambitious goals for 2030 aimed at fixing our biggest environmental problems (Earthshot.org).

conclusion

In conclusion, the history of environmentalism has undergone a significant transformation, evolving from initial concerns about pollution during the Industrial Revolution to a comprehensive global movement that involves diverse stakeholders and tackles a wide array of environmental issues. The United Nations and its specialised agencies, including the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), have played a pivotal role in coordinating international efforts and advancing environmental sustainability, alongside the establishment of vital partnerships like the UN-Forum.

The existence of landmark agreements such as the Montreal Protocol, Kyoto Protocol, and Paris Agreement has exemplified the commitment of nations to address climate change and safeguard the planet. Moreover, the adoption of the UN 2030 Agenda, along with its Sustainable Development Goals, emphasises the criticality of environmental sustainability in attaining a prosperous and just future for all.

Moving forward, it remains imperative to intensify global climate action and collaborate closely to preserve the health of our planet for future generations. By maintaining a strong dose of hope, we can confidently confront and resolve the most daunting environmental challenges of our time.